Public torture and execution (lingchi) of an unidentified man, Beijing

Public execution, Beijing

Figurines by a gate to hell (鬼門關), a tableau relating to punishment, torture and reincarnation

Punishment with cangues

Road repair chain gang of prisoners with SMP guards, including Sikhs

Men being tortured and executed in wooden cages

The head of an executed man

A man in a cangue, punished 'for assaulting foreigners', Shanghai

A man wearing a cangue

Bodies of executed looters or rioters (Peking Mutiny), Beijing, 1912

Men about to be executed (Peking Mutiny), Beijing, 1912

Convicts (chain gang) from the Municipal Gaol making a road, Shanghai

Samson, Wall and Grant, with Sikh prison officer, outside SM Gaol, Shanghai

Convicts (chain gang) working in a prison stone breaking yard, Shanghai

Chain gang convicts having a meal, Shanghai

A convict chain gang working on dredging Suzhou Creek, Shanghai

Chain gang convicts at work, road making, Shanghai

Convicts working in a prison stone breaking yard, Shanghai

Convicts lined up in a prison stone breaking yard, Shanghai

Policemen with four handcuffed prisoners in cangues, Shanghai